| A Survey of Diving Behaviour and Accidental Water Ingestion among Dutch Occupational and Sport Divers to Assess the Risk of Infection with Waterborne Pathogenic Microorganisms Jack Schijven and Ana Maria de Roda Husman Microbiological Laboratory for Health Protection, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands Abstract
Divers may run a higher risk of infection with waterborne pathogens than bathers because of more frequent and intense contact with water that may not comply with microbiologic water quality standards for bathing water. In this study we aimed to estimate the volume of water swallowed during diving as a key factor for infection risk assessment associated with diving. Using questionnaires, occupational and sport divers in the Netherlands were asked about number of dives, volume of swallowed water, and health complaints (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and ear, skin, eye, and respiratory complaints) . Occupational divers, on average, swallowed 9.8 mL marine water and 5.7 mL fresh surface water per dive. Sport divers swallowed, on average, 9.0 mL marine water ; 13 mL fresh recreational water ; 3.2 mL river, canal, or city canal water ; and 20 mL water in circulation pools. Divers swallowed less water when wearing a full face mask instead of an ordinary diving mask and even less when wearing a diving helmet. A full face mask or a diving helmet is recommended when diving in fecally contaminated water. From the volumes of swallowed water and concentrations of pathogens in fecally contaminated water, we estimated the infection risks per dive and per year to be as high as a few to up to tens of percents. This may explain why only 20% of the divers reported having none of the inquired health complaints within a period of 1 year. It is highly recommended that divers be informed about fecal contamination of the diving water. Key words: Campylobacter, divers, enteroviruses, risk of infection, volume of water. Environ Health Perspect 114:712-717 (2006) . doi:10.1289/ehp.8523 available via http://dx.doi.org/ [Online 16 February 2006]
Address correspondence to J. Schijven, Microbiological Laboratory for Health Protection, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands. Telephone: 31-30-274-2994. Fax: 31-30-274-4434. E-mail: jack.schijven@rivm.nl We thank the Dutch Association of Diving Enterprises and the Dutch Divers Union for their cooperation and their provision of data, without which this work could not have been conducted. We also thank the divers who participated in this study. This work was carried out on behalf of and funded by the Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning, and the Environment, Directorate General for Environmental Protection, as part of the research program 330000, Water Microbiology. The authors declare they have no competing financial interests. Received 21 July 2005 ; accepted 16 February 2006. The full version of this article is available for free in HTML or PDF formats. |
