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Hindrik Bouwman¹ and Henrik Kylin^2,3

¹School of Environmental Sciences and Development (Zoology), North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa; ²Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Polar Environmental Centre, Tromsø, Norway; ³Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden

Abstract
Background: In many parts of the world, deliberate indoor residual spraying (IRS) of dwellings with insecticides to control malaria transmission remains the only viable option, thereby unintentionally but inevitably also causing exposure to inhabitants. Because mothers are exposed to insecticides via various routes, accumulated residues are transferred to infants via breast milk, in some cases exceeding recommended intake levels. Except for dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) , safety of residues of other insecticides in breast milk has not been considered during World Health Organization Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) evaluations. However, very little is known of the health risks posed by these chemicals to infants who, in developing countries, breast-feed for up to 2 years.

Objective: We evaluated the need for WHOPES to include breast milk as a potentially significant route of exposure and risk to infants when evaluating the risks during evaluation of IRS insecticides.

Discussion: We present evidence showing that neurologic and endocrine effects are associated with pyrethroids and DDT at levels equal or below known levels in breast milk.

Conclusions: Because millions of people in malaria control areas experience conditions of multiple sources and routes of exposure to any number of insecticides, even though lives are saved through malaria prevention, identification of potential infant health risks associated with insecticide residues in breast milk must be incorporated in WHOPES evaluations and in the development of appropriate risk assessment tools.

Key words: DDT, IRS, pyrethroid, vector control, WHOPES. Environ Health Perspect 117:1477–1480 (2009) . doi:10.1289/ehp.0900605 available via http://dx.doi.org/ [Online 1 May 2009]

Address correspondence to H. Bouwman, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) , School of Environmental Sciences and Development, P Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa. Telephone: 27 18 2992377. Fax: 27 18 2992503. E-mail: henk.bouwman@nwu.ac.za

Supplemental Material is available online (doi:10.​1289/ehp.0900605.S1 via http://dx.doi.org) .

We thank R. Pieters, R. Bornman, and three anonymous reviewers for comments on the manuscript.

This publication was made possible with support from the North-West University and a grant from the Swedish/South African bilateral research agreement.

The authors declare they have no competing financial interests.

Received 22 January 2009 ; accepted 4 May 2009.